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<title>Observational techniques</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Observational techniques</span></span>

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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p>In <a href="Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> and the social sciences, <b>observational research</b> (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from <a href="Experimental_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental techniques">experimental research</a> in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experilovement.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_context">In context</h2></div>

<p>Observational research is a method of data collection that has become associated with qualitative research. <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared with <a href="Quantitative_marketing_research" title="Quantitative marketing research">quantitative research</a> and <a href="Experimental_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental techniques">experimental research</a>, observational research tends to be less <a href="Reliability_(psychometric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reliability (psychometric)">reliable</a> but often more <a href="Validity_(psychometric)" class="mw-redirect" title="Validity (psychometric)">valid</a>. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Observational research measures behavior directly, rather than the subject's self-reports of behavior or intentions. The main disadvantage is it is limited to behavioral variables. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_collection_methods">Data collection methods</h2></div>

<p>Generally, there are three methods used to collect data in observational research:<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<ul><li><b>Covert observational research</b> – The researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. The advantages of this approach are: (1) It is not necessary to get the subjects' cooperation, and (2) The subjects' behaviour will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings with the deceit involved in this approach.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b>Overt observational research</b> – The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects may modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their "ideal self" rather than their true self in what is called the <a href="Hawthorne_effect" title="Hawthorne effect">Hawthorne Effect</a>. The advantage that the overt approach has over the covert approach is that there is no deception (see, for example, <a href="Parent-Child_Interaction_Assessment-II_(PCIA-II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA-II)"> PCIA-II</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b>Participant Observation</b> – The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_marketing_research">In marketing research</h2></div>

<p>In marketing research, the most frequently used types of observational techniques are:

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<ul><li>Personal observation

<ul><li>observing <a href="Product_(business)" title="Product (business)">products</a> in use to detect usage patterns and problems</li>

<li><a href="Automatic_number_plate_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatic number plate recognition">observing license plates</a> in store parking lots</li>

<li>determining the <a href="Socio-economic_status" class="mw-redirect" title="Socio-economic status">socio-economic status</a> of shoppers</li>

<li>determining the level of package scrutiny</li>

<li>determining the time it takes to make a purchase decision</li></ul></li>

<li>Mechanical observation<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ul><li><a href="Eye-tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye-tracking">eye-tracking</a> analysis while subjects watch advertisements

<ul><li><a href="Oculometer" title="Oculometer">oculometers</a> – what the subject is looking at</li>

<li><a href="Pupilometer" title="Pupilometer">pupilometers</a> – how interested is the viewer</li></ul></li>

<li>electronic checkout scanners – records purchase behaviour</li>

<li>on-site cameras in stores</li>

<li>people meters (as in monitoring television viewing) e.g.<a href="Nielsen_ratings" class="mw-redirect" title="Nielsen ratings">Nielsen box</a></li>

<li>voice pitch meters – measures emotional reactions</li>

<li><a href="Psychogalvanometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychogalvanometer">psychogalvanometer</a> – measures galvanic skin response</li></ul></li>

<li>Audits<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ul><li>retail audits to determine the <a href="Quality_of_service" title="Quality of service">quality of service</a> in stores</li>

<li>inventory audits to determine product acceptance</li>

<li>shelf space audits</li>

<li>scanner based audits</li></ul></li>

<li>Trace Analysis<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ul><li>credit card records</li>

<li><a href="Computer_cookie" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer cookie">computer cookie</a> records</li>

<li><a href="Garbology" title="Garbology">garbology</a> – looking for traces of purchase patterns in garbage</li>

<li>detecting store <a href="Traffic_count" title="Traffic count">traffic patterns</a> by observing the wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the floor (short term)</li>

<li>exposure to advertisements</li></ul></li>

<li>Content analysis<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<ul><li>observe the content of magazines, television broadcasts, radio broadcasts, or newspapers, either articles, programs, or advertisements</li></ul></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Consumer_behaviour" title="Consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li>

<li><a href="Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_engagement" title="Enterprise engagement">Enterprise engagement</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li>

<li><a href="Experimental_techniques" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental techniques">Experimental techniques</a></li>

<li><a href="Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="Marketing_research" title="Marketing research">Marketing research</a></li>

<li><a href="Qualitative_marketing_research" title="Qualitative marketing research">Qualitative marketing research</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_marketing_research" title="Quantitative marketing research">Quantitative marketing research</a></li>

<li><a href="Usability_testing" title="Usability testing">Usability testing</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richie, J and Lewis, J., <i>Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and Researchers,</i> Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 2003, p. 3</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kazdin, Alan (2002), <i>Research Design in Clinical Psychology,</i> 4th ed., Needham Heights, MA, Allyn & Bacon. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">

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</style><a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-205-33292-7</bdi> Chapter 9</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview,"

<i>Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,</i> Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, p. 219</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holigrocki, R. J., & Kaminski, P. L., "A structural and microanalytic exploration of parent-child relational psychopathology," <i>Constructivism in the Human Sciences,</i> Vol. 7, 2002, pp 111-123; Holigrocki, R. J, Kaminski, P. L., & Frieswyk, S. H., "Introduction to the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment," <i>Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic,</i> Vol. 63, No. 3, 1999, 413–428.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Becker, H.S., "Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation," <i>American Sociological Review,</i> Vol. 23, No. 6, 1958, pp. 652-660 </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grove, S.J. and Fisk, R.P., "Observational data collection methods for services marketing: an overview,"

<i>Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,</i> Vol. 20, No. 3, 1992, pp 217-224</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Housden, M., <i>CIM Coursebook 05/06: Marketing Research and Information,</i> Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005 [e-book edition]</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kunzli, A., "Empirical Approaches," in <i>Handbook of Translation Studies,</i> Yves Gambier and Luc van Doorslaer (eds), Volume 4, John Benjamin, 2003, pp 53-98</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drisko, J. and Maschi, T., <i>Content Analysis,</i> Oxford University Press, 2016</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Russell W. Belk (ed), <i>Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing,</i> Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006</li>

<li>Constance T. Fischer (ed), <i>Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists,</i> Elsevier, 2006</li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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